Publication: Likidite ve özel emeklilik fonları
Abstract
KAVRAMSAL ÇERÇEVE Finansal serbestleşme iç ve dış finansal serbestleşme olarak ayrı ayrı incelenebilir. İç finansal serbestleşme, enflasyon ve faiz oranları arasındaki bağı kuvvetlendirirken, dış finansal serbestleşme enflasyon ve döviz kurları arasındaki ilişkiyi zayıflatır ve ticari denge ve paranın nisbi alım gücü yerine sermaye hareketlerinin üstünlüğünü ortaya koyar. İç finansal serbestleşmenin başlıca temel öğeleri şunlardır: öncelikli sektörlere uygulanan kredi sınırlamalarını, faiz oranlarındaki tavanı kaldırmak; yeni kurumların mali sistemin içine girmelerini engelleyen unsurları ortadan kaldırmak; yabancı para ödemeleri üzerindeki sınırlandırmaları ortadan kaldırmak; ulusal mali sistemin rekabetçi piyasa koşullarına açılması vb. Dış finansal serbestleşme kavramı ile ise, bir ülkede yaşayan yerleşiklerin kolayca aktiflerini döviz olarak değerlendirebilmeleri ya da borçlarını döviz olarak ödeyebilmeleri ve yabancıların da yurtiçi finansal piyasalarda rahatça işlem yapabilmeleri anlaşılmaktadır. Bu tanım aynı zamanda, finansal açıklık kavramına da uymaktadır. Dış finansal serbestleşme ile ilgili olarak üç değişik işlem bulunmaktadır. Birinci işlem türü, içsel işlemlerle ilgili olan serbestleşmedir. İkinci işlem türü ise, yerleşiklerin yurt dışına sermaye transferi yapabilmesine ve dış ülkelerde finansal aktif bulundurabilmelerine ve yabancıların da yurtiçi piyasalardan borçlanmalarına izin veren bir serbestleşme türüdür. Üçüncü serbestleşme türü ise, dövizle yapılan yurtiçi işlemlerin serbestleştirilmesiyle ilgilidir. Bir ülkenin ekonomik büyümesini artırması için, finansal deregülasyon ve finansal derinleşme büyük önem arz etmektedir. Finansal deregülasyon, kısaca, finansal kurumların ve hizmetlerin çeşitlenmesidir. Finansal derinleşme ise, finans sektöründe yaratılan fonların, reel kesime aktarılma oranıdır TEORİK YAKLAŞIMLAR McKinnon-Shaw Yaklaşımı Finansal serbestleşmenin teorik temelini Shaw ve McKinnon tarafından geliştirilen Finansal Baskı Hipotezi oluşturmaktadır. Finansal baskı hipotezinin temelinde yatan düşünceye göre, gelişmekte olan ülkelerde baskı altında tutulan finansal piyasalarda, bu baskının kalkması ile birlikte finansal serbestleşme sonucu ekonomik gelişmeye katkı sağlayacaklar ve kaynakların etkin dağılımında olumlu rol oynayacaklardır. Yani reel faiz hadlerinin yükselmesiyle ekonomide tasarruf oranlarının arttırılabileceği ve kaynaklar üretken alanlara kaydırılarak kalkınmanın sağlanabileceği öne sürülmüştür. Yeni Keynesyen Yaklaşım Finansal liberasyonu temel alan iktisatçılarca savunulan McKinnon-Shaw Hipotezi, Yeni Keynesçiler ve Yeni Yapısalcılar tarafından eleştirilmektedirler. Yeni Keynesyen görüşe göre, faiz hadlerinin yükselmesi yatırımları arttırmak yerine, caydırıcı bir etki yapmaktadırlar. Finansal baskının etkin olmayan kaynak tahsisine sebep olduğu yolundaki McKinnon-Shaw görüşü kabul edilmemekte ve finansal baskının kaynak tahsisini olumlu etkilediği öne sürülmektedir. Yeni Yapısalcı Yaklaşım Yeni Yapısalcılara göre faiz oranlarının artmasının ve finansal serbestleşmenin kısa süreli etkileri öncelikle stagflasyon ortamının oluşmasına neden olurlar. LİKİDİTE VE EKONOMİDEKİ YERİ Finansal sistemin sağladığı hizmetler arasında fiyat bilgisi sağlama, tasarruf sahiplerinin farklı varlıklar tutarak risk dağıtımı yapabilmesi ve bunların para karşılığında kolayca değiştirilebilmesi için likidite sağlaması önde gelmektedir. Kişisel servet sık sık bireylerin refahının ölçüsü olarak kullanılmaktadır. Ancak, servetin hangi biçimde tutulduğu da bireyin refahını etkileyebilir. Bir mübadele aracına hızlı ve maliyetsiz biçimde çevrilen varlıklar, beklenmedik harcamaları karşılamakta, çevrilmeleri daha fazla zaman alan ve daha maliyetli olan varlıklara nazaran daha değerli olacaktır. Düşük maliyetlerle paraya çevrilebilen varlıkları likit, böyle özellikleri bulunmayanları da likit olmayan varlıklar olarak nitelendirmekteyiz. Likit varlıklar çabuk ve ucuz bir şekilde bir değişim aracına -paraya- çevrilebildiği için, likit bir varlığın alım ya da satım işlemi de kısa bir süre içinde ve taraflar içinde düşük bir maliyetle sonuçlandırılabilir. Alış-satış fiyat aralığı bütün piyasalarda işlem maliyetinin önemli bir parçasıdır. Bilgi farklılıklarından kaynaklan alım satım teklifleri arasındaki farklar, likidite amaçlı işlemlerin maliyetini yükselteceğinden, bu işlemleri yapanların işlem maliyetini azaltacak yönde tepkilerini teşvik edebilir. Daha az bilgiye sahip bireylerin daha fazla likiditeye sahip olmak istemeleri, finansal aracılar ve piyasalar için bir fırsat yaratmaktadır. Sistemde likidite amaçlı işlem yapanları memnun etmeye yönelik finansal yenilikler ortaya çıkmaktadır. KURUMSAL YATIRIMCILAR VE MENKUL KIYMET PİYASALARI KURUMSAL YATIRIMCILARIN SERMAYE PİYASALARINA KATKILARI ZİNCİRLEME ETKİSİ Bir ülke gelişmiş menkul kıymet piyasalarının yokluğunda özel emeklilik fonlarının, sigorta şirketlerinin ve yatırım fonlarının yaratımını teşvik etmeli mi sorusuna verecek cevap her kurumsal yatırımcı için farklı olacaktır. Gelişmiş bir finansal sisteminin tüm gereksinimlerinden yoksun ola bir ülke bile üç önkoşulu yerine getirmesi durumunda sistemli emeklilik reformunu başlatmayı gözden geçirebilir. Bunlar; başarılı bir emeklilik reformu için güçlü, uzun-dönemli ve devamlı bir hükümet bağlılığı; emeklilik fonu aktiflerinin emniyetli korunması için etkili düzenlemeler; ve yabancı tecrübeye serbest giriş. Dinamik Etkileşim Aracıların ortadan kalkmasına sebep olarak bankacılık sektörüne rakip olan emeklilik fonları buna güzel bir örnektir. Bu kurumsal yatırımcılar ayrıca finansal yeniliği, modern sermaye piyasaları, şeffaflığı ve kamuoyunu bilgilendirmeyi geliştirici ve şirket yönetişimini kuvvetlendirici yönde etki etmektedirler. Dengeleyici Güç Kurumsal yatırımcıların büyümesinin en önemli faydalarından biri finansal sistemdeki rekabetin yoğunlaşmasıdır. Yeni finans kaynaklarının gelişmesi; ister yeni yabancı bankaların girişi olsun ister yabancı piyasalara ulaşım olsun isterse de kurumsal ve diğer banka-dışı finansal aracıların büyümesi olsun(leasing ve faktoring şirketleri gibi), hakim olan ticari bankaları daha rekabetçi olmaya ve kredi arayanların onları ziyaretlerindense onları müşteri aramaya zorlamıştır. Finansal Yenilik Kurumal Yatırımcılar ve özellikle emeklilik fonları son kırk senede gerçekleşen finansal yeniliklerin arkasındaki en büyük uyarıcı güç olmuşlardır. Direk veya indirekt olarak, varlığa dayalı menkul kıymetlerin gelişimini, yapısal ve finans ve türev ürünlerinin kullanımını, endeks takip eden fonların oluşturulmasını ve yatırımcıları piyasa düşüşlerinden koruyan sentetik ürünlerin önerileri sunan kurumsal yatırımcılardır. Kurumsal yatırımcılardan doğan finansal yeniliklerin belirgin şekilde görüldüğü ülkeler arasında sistemli emeklilik reformunu uygulayan Şili ve Arjantin başta gelmektedir. Piyasa Bütünlüğü Eğitimli profesyoneller tarafından yönetilen kurumsal yatırımcılar, şirket yönetiminin karşılaşabileceği potansiyel çıkar ve aracılık problemleri hakkında sıradan yatırımcıdan çok daha bilinçli olup piyasa bütünlüğü saplayacak olan yatırımcıyı koruyan düzenlemeler için daha fazla ısrar edebilme yeteneğine sahiptir.Yatırımcıyı koruma kuralları, büyük kurumsal yatırımcıların birçok şirkette azınlık hissesi tuttuğu ülkelerde, kurumsal yatırımcıların az geliştiği (örneğin; Almanya) veya az sayıda şirkette büyük miktarda ortaklığı bulunduğu ülkelere göre daha fazla gelişmiştir. Aynı zamanda, azınlık hissedarlarının haklarının daha kuvvetli korunması da Anglo-Amerikan ülkelerindeki kurumsal yatırımcıların Avrupa ülkelerindeki göre hisse senetlerinde daha önce ve daha geniş bir çeşitlendirmeye gitmelerini de açıklayabilir. Piyasa İşlemlerinin Modernizasyonu Kurumsal yatırımcılar modern ve etkili işlem imkanları için baskı kurmaktadırlar. Bu baskı sadece tek bir işlem faaliyeti için değil ayrıca merkezi saklama kuruluşları beraberinde takas ve saklama araçları içindir. Kurumsal yatırımcılar ayrıca blok işlemlerin devreye girmesini, minimum komisyon limitinin kalkmasına ve dünyadaki pek çok ülkelerin borsalarının yeniden yapılanmasına ve işlem faaliyetlerinin otomasyonuna öncü olmuşlardır. Kurumsal yatırımcılar ayrıca daha etkili takas faaliyetlerini teşvik edip kaydi sistemli kayıt yapan merkezi saklama aracılarının kurulmasını sağlamışlardır. Kurumsal yatırımcılar ayrıca, hızla artan alım-satım hacimlerinden sıkıntı çeken gelişmekte olan piyasaların modern, etkili ve güvenilir back-office operasyonları için baskı kurmuşlardır. Şirket Yönetişimi Kurumsal yatırımcıların şirket yönetişimindeki önemi kurumlara sahip olma oranları ile paralel bir çizgide gelişti. Hisse sahiplikleri ufak ve dağınık olduğu ve piyasanın ufak bir yüzdesi temsil ettiği müddetçe kurumsal yatırımcılar şirket yönetişimi konusunda pasif bir tutum izlediler. Genel itibariyle oylarını şirketle aynı yönde kullandılar ve şirket performansından memnun kalmadıkları durumlarda da fiyatta büyük bir değişiklik olmadan satabilmekteydiler. Ancak birikmiş aktiflerinin sürekli büyümeye devam etmesi, kurumsal yatırımcıları finans dışı şirketlerin en büyük ortakları haline getirdi. Ortaklıktaki bu hakim pozisyonları piyasayı bozup büyük fiyat düşüşleri yaratmadan çıkış opsiyonlarının kalmadığı anlamına gelmekteydi. Etkin olarak seslerini duyurmak zorunda kaldılar. Kurumsal yatırımcılar, çeşitli aracılar yoluyla, şirket yönetişimi yapılarını kuvvetlendirmenin önemi ve özellikle üst yöneticilerin kredibilitesini arttırmanın önemi üzerinde durdular. Finansal Regülasyon Kurumsal yatırımcıların gelişimi sağlam ve etkili düzenlemeler gerektirmektedir. Bu da otoritelerin kuvvetli ve sürekli bir bağlılığı ile beraber zaman gerektirmektedir. Başta her ne kadar sıkı kurallar uygulansa da, özellikle zorunlu bir emeklilik ve sigorta sisteminin bulundugu bir ortamda düzenlemeler zamanla gevşetilerek yatırımcılara karşı şeffaflık ve yöneticilerin basiretli yönetimi öne çıkartılmalıdır. Zayıf düzenleyici yapıları olan gelişmekte olan ülkelerde, özel emeklilik fonları yaratmaının uzun dönemli bir faydası da yeni ve sağlam düzenleyici kurumların oluşmasını sağlayarak finansal sistemin diğer yönlerine de pozitif bir katkı sağlamasıdır. EMEKLİLİK FONLARI Emeklilik fon kurumları, katılımcılarına aktif olarak çalıştıkları dönemde katkı payları aracılığıyla topladıkları fonları, aktif olarak çalışmadıkları dönemde, dönemsel gelir sağlamak üzere, finansal piyasalarda nemalandıran aracı kuruluşlar olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Bütün, emeklilik fonlarının amacı aynı olmakla beraber bir iki noktada ayrılık göstermektedir. Birincisi, fonun yaygınlığı, diğer bir deyişle; fonun, süresi, kişinin bir menfaat elde etmek için fona katılmak zorunluluğudur. İkincisi ise, ödemelerin yapılma metotlarıdır. İlkine, belirlenmiş katkı modeli denir. İkincisine ise, belirlenmiş maaş (menfaat) modeli denir. DÜNYADA KURUMSAL YATIRIMCILAR VE EMEKLİLİK FONLARI Ülke kalkınmasında ve sermaye piyasalarının gelişiminde önemli yer tutan kurumsal yatırımcılar, İkinci Dünya Savaşı'ndan sonra, özellikle son 20 yılda hızla gelişmeye başlamıştır. Kurumsal yatırımcıların toplam varlıkları 1970-1980 arasında 3 kat artarken, 1980-1990 arasında 3 kattan fazla artmıştır. Bu varlıkları 1991-1999 yılları arasında da yaklaşık olarak 2'ye katlanmıştır. OECD bölgesinde, kurumsal yatırımcılar aktiflerini yine aynı dönemde ortalama olarak yaklaşık olarak %11 arttırmışlardır. Aktiflerin değerindeki bu artış kurumsal tasarrufların ve mevcut kurumsal aktiflerin değerlenmesinin bir sonucu olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Sigorta şirketleri halen %34 ile en büyük kurumsal yatırımcı kitlesini oluşturmakla beraber yatırım şirketleri de %29 pay ile hemen arkadan gelmektedir. Kurumsal yatırımların makro ekonomik büyüklüğünü ortaya koymak üzere GSMH'a oranına bakmak faydalı olacaktır. Bu oranın yüksekliği sermaye kullanımının etkinliği konusunda da bir göstergedir. OECD ülkelerinde 1999 yılı itibariyle incelendiğinde; İngiltere, Hollanda, A.B.D., İsviçre, İsveç %130-230 arasında değişen oranlarla ilk sıralarda yer almaktadır. Türkiye %3,4 ile sıralamadaki sonuncu konumunu muhafaza etmektedir. Kurumsal yatırımcıların portföy kompozisyonunda, ülkelerarası farklılık göstermekle birlikte sabit getirili menkul kıymetlerin ağırlığı hisse senetlerinin ağırlığından daha fazladır. ÖZEL EMEKLİLİK FONLARININ GELİŞİMİ Çalışanların meslek hayatları boyunca biriktirdikleri emeklilik tasarruflarından oluşan özel emeklilik fonları, sosyal güvenlik sisteminin demografik değişimden dolayı yaşadığı krizlerin de etkisiyle zaman içerisinde giderek artan boyutta tasarrufları çatısı altında toplayarak finans piyasalarında işlem yapan başlıca yatırım gruplarından biri haline gelmiştir. OECD ülkelerindeki finansal varlıkların %39'u sigorta şirketlerinin, %30'u emeklilik fonlarının elinde bulunmaktadır. Özel Emeklilik fonu varlıklarının ortalama yıllık büyüme hızı OECD genelinde 1991-1999 yılları arasında %13 düzeyinde seyretmiştir. Yatırım yaptıkları varlıklarda kısa değil uzun dönemde kazanç elde etme arayışlarından dolayı sabırlı sermaye olarak tanımlanan bu fonların yatırımları, genel olarak likiditeden çok, uzun dönemli getiri üzerinde odaklanmaktadır. Emeklilik fonlarının yatırım stratejilerinde, uzun vadede yüksek getiri sağlamanın ön plana çıkmasına paralel olarak, hisse senetleri ve tahvillerin özel emeklilik portföylerindeki payının arttığı görülmektedirGelecekte, emeklilik fonları olgunluk aşamasına girmekte olan ABD, İngiltere, Almanya gibi ülkelerdeki varlık artış hızının yavaşlamasının beklenmesine karşın, emeklilik fonları yeni gelişmekte olan ülkelerin OECD ortalamasının üzerinde bir büyüme sergileyecekleri öngörülmektedir Özellikle, gelişmekte olan piyasalara talep yaratacak yabancı menkul kıymetlere yatırım trendinin devam etmesi beklenmektedir Tüm bu gelişmeler, finansal piyasaların genişliği ve derinliğinin artmasına hizmet edecektir. ÖZEL EMEKLİLİK FONLARININ MAKROEKONOMİK FONKSİYONLARI Son dönemde, finansal gelişmenin ekonomik büyüme, verimlilik ve tasarruflar üzerindeki etkileri üzerinde yapılan çalışmalar emeklilik fonu reformlarının; sermaye piyasaları gelişimi üzerinde pozitif bir etki göstererek refah üzerinde ayrı bir fayda sağladığı düşündürmektedir. Sermaye piyasası gelişmesinin büyüme üzerindeki pozitif etkisinin varlığı temel teorik desteğini, likit ve etkin hisse senedi piyasalarının uzun dönemli yatırımlar üzerindeki teşvikleri arttırarak ekonomik büyümeye yolaçtığı endojen büyüme modellerinde bulmaktadır. Emeklilik fonu reformu kurumsal sermaye birikimini dinamik bir hukuki yapı, yatırımların karar alma sürecindeki artan profesyonellik, daha fazla şeffaflık ve bütünlük ve ayrıca yeni bir şirket yönetim dengesi yoluyla, özellikle en eski reform olan Şili örneğinde olduğu gibi kolaylaştırmaktadır. Tasarrufların arttırılması Özel emeklilik fonlarının bir ülkedeki özel tasarrufları artırması çeşitli yollarla gerçekleşmektedir: a)Bireysel hesaplarda emeklilik tasarruflarının birikmeye başlamasından sonra, emeklilik dönemi için tasarruf yapılmasının gerekliliğine ilişkin bireylerin farkındalığı artmaktadır; b)Emeklilik fonu varlıklarının yüksek getiri elde etmesi bireyleri daha fazla tasarruf yapmaya teşvik etmektedir; c)Özel emeklilik fonlarının tüm çalışanlara zorunlu tutulması durumunda, bireylerin erken yaşlardan itibaren emeklilik için tasarruf yapma disiplinine girmelerini sağlamaktadır; d)Dağıtım sisteminden fonlama sistemine geçişin vergilerin artırılması suretiyle finanse edilmesi halinde bireylerin tüketim seviyeleri düşmektedir; e)Reform sonrası artan büyüme hızı kişi başına geliri artırmak suretiyle zorunlu harcamaların gelir içerisindeki payını düşürerek bireylerin tasarruf kabiliyetini arttırmaktadır. Finansal Piyasaların Gelişimi Süregelen ve devam eden araştırmalar, finansal gelişmenin ekonomik büyümeyi birçok kanal yolu ile etkilediğini göstermektedir. Bankacılık sisteminin gelişiminden özel sektöre tahsis edilen kredilerdeki artışa kadar finansal hayatın birçok sahasını etkileyen ekonomik büyüme ile sermaye piyasası pazarlarının derinleşmesi, piyasa endekslerinin ve kapitalizasyonun gelişimi arasında yüksek bir korelasyon görülmektedir. Sermaye piyasası içerisinde özellikle hisse senetleri piyasası etkinleşip derinleştikçe, özel sektörün finansmanına yönelik imkanların artması, riskin dağıtılmasına katkıda bulunup, uzun vadede yüksek getirili projelere finansman sağlayarak ekonomik büyüme üzerinde uyarıcı etki yapmaktadır. Özelleştirme Sürecinin Etkinleştirilmesi Özel emeklilik fonları, kamu iktisadi kuruluşlarının özelleştirilmesi sürecinde ihraç edilen menkul kıymetlere büyük miktarda yatırım yapma potansiyeline sahiptir. Özellikle, sermaye birikimine sahip olmayan geçiş ekonomilerinde kamu iktisadi teşebbüslerinin yerel yatırımcılara devredilebilmesi bağlamında bu fonların yarattığı kapitalizasyon büyük önem taşımaktadır. İşgücü Piyasasının Yeniden Düzenlenmesi Özel emeklilik programları, sermaye piyasası üzerinden yaptıkları yatırımlar yoluyla sermayenin mülkiyetinin çalışanlara geçip geniş toplum kesimlerine yayılmasına katkıda bulunmaktadır. Profesyonel fon yöneticileri yoluyla tespit edilen ekonominin en verimli sektörleri ve şirketlerinin menkul kıymetlerine dolaylı olarak sahip olan çalışan ve emekliler, bireysel birikimleri ile sahip olamayacakları derecede çeşitlendirilmiş bir yatırım portföyünden tasarrufları oranında pay almaktadır. ŞİLİ EMEKLİLİK TASARRUF HESABI SİSTEMİ Şili Emeklilik Tasarruf Hesabı (ETH) Sisteminde, çalışanların emeklilik maaşının düzeyini belirleyen unsur, çalışma hayatı boyunca yaptığı birikimlerdir Çalışanlar, ETH'lerini işletmesi için, Emeklilik Fonu Yöneticisi (EFY) özel şirketlerinden birini seçmektedir. EFY'ler yatırım fonlarına benzeyen, hisse senedi ve tahvillere yatırım yapan Emeklilik Fonlarını (EF)'nı yönetmektedirler. EFY'ler ile işlettikleri EF'ler farklı tüzel kişiliklerdir. Çalışanlar ETH'lerini bir EFY'den diğerine serbestçe taşıyabilirler. Şili ETH sistemi hem özel sektör hem de kamu sektörü çalışanlarını kapsamaktadır Emekliye ayrılan çalışanlara genel olarak iki seçenek sunulmaktadır. Birinci seçenek çerçevesinde, emekli ETH'deki ana para ile herhangi özel bir yaşam sigortası şirketinden bir sabit ödeme planı satın alabilir. Diğer seçenekte ise, emekli, ETH'deki fonları hesapta bırakarak, kendisinin ve bakmakla yükümlü olduğu kişilerin tahmini yaşam sürelerine göre belirlenecek sınırlar çerçevesinde belirlenen miktarlarda para çekebilir. Özel sektör şirketlerinin uyguladıkları, genellikle belirlenen bir süreden önce emekliye ayrılanlara ek maliyet yükleyen ve bazen birikimlerinin tamamen kaybedilmesi ile sonuçlanan - ve böylece çalışanların hem işlerini hem de emeklilik haklarını kaybetmelerine neden olan - özel sosyal güvenlik sistemlerinin aksine, ETH sistemi işverenden tamamen bağımsız işler. ETH sistemi, esnek bir işgücü piyasasını desteklemek konusunda da etkilidir REFORMUN MAKROEKONOMİK ETKİLERİ Reformun Sermaye Piyasasına Etkileri Şili'deki reform, ülkenin sermaye piyasasına, direkt bir talep ajanı olması yoluyla ve indirekt olarak da düzenleyici altyapıdaki getirdiği adaptasyonlar, finansal piyasaların şeffaflaşması ve bir dereceye kadar da şirket yönetişim sisteminde insider yolu ile gücü kötüye kullanmanın önüne geçmesiyle büyük katkılar yapmıştır. Şili'de özel emeklilik sisteminin ihdas edilmesinden itibaren sermaye piyasası kayda değer bir derinlik kazanmıştır. Kurumsal yatırımcıların portföyündeki varlıklar 1980 yılındaki 1,04 milyar $ düzeyinden, 1995 yılında 37,6 milyar $'a yükselirken, bu artışın 25,4 milyar $'lık bölümü(%68'i) Administradora de Fondos de Pensiones kısaca AFP'lerin portföyünde toplanmıştır. Sabit Getirili Menkul Kıymet Piyasasına Etkileri Makroekonomik yeniden yapılanma sürecinde başarıya ulaşılmasının da etkisiyle, özel emeklilik fonlarının başlangıç dönemi portföylerinde ağırlıklı bir pay ayırdıkları sabit getirili kamu menkul kıymetlerinin faiz oranı 1980'li yılların ilk çeyreğinden itibaren gerilemeye başlamıştır. Hisse Senetleri Piyasasına Etkileri AFP'lerin hisse senetlerine yaptığı yatırımlar arttıkça, Santiago Borsası'nın işlem hacmi ve piyasa değeri de hızlı bir gelişim göstermiştir. Bu dönemde ekonominin istikrarlı bir büyüme trendi göstermesi ve ülkeye yönelen yabancı sermaye akışının artması nedeniyle, Santiago Borsası'nın gelişiminin ne oranda özel emeklilik fonlarına bağlanabileceği kesin olarak tespit edilememiştir. Özel Emeklilik Fonlarının Tasarruflara Etkisi Şili emeklilik reformu tüm ekonominin işleyişinde önemli etkiler yaratmıştır. Bunların içinde en önemlilerinden biri ülkenin tasarruf oranının 1986'daki %10'un altından 1996'da %29 seviyesine çıkması olmuştur. Bu etki ağırlıklı olarak kamu sektörünün tasarruflarındaki artışla sağlanırken kamu sektörü tasarruf oranı 1983'deki %0.1 seviyesinden 1993'de %5 seviyesine kadar yükselmiştir. 1991 yılı itibariyle ulusal tasarrufların %72'sini elinde tutan özel emeklilik fonları ülkenin başlıca tasarruf kaynağı durumundadır KURUMSAL YATIRIMCILAR VE TÜRKİYE Türkiye'de sosyal güvenlik alanında kullanılan sistem PAYG -önceki neslin sonraki nesli finanse etmesi- olduğu için bu alanda herhangi bir fon yaratılması imkansızdır. Çalışan nesiller, ödedikleri primler ile emeklileri finanse ederler. Fon yaratılamamasının sebebi sistemin bu özelliğinden kaynaklanmaktadır. Bu yapı içinde sosyal güvenlik kurumlarının sermaye piyasalarında kurumsal yatırımcı olarak yeralmaları olanaksız gözükmektedir. Sermaye piyasasında kurumsal yatırımcılar denince Türkiye'de etkinliği daha fazla olan yatırım fonları (A ve B tipi) ile Menkul Kıymet Yatırım Ortaklıkları'dır (MKYO). Birçok ülkede akla gelebilecek sigorta şirketleri veya emeklilik fonları henüz bu anlamda varlık gösterememektedirler. Gelişmiş ülkelerde mali piyasalara başlıca fon arz eden kurumu olan sosyal güvenlik kuruluşlarının aksine, Türkiye'de sosyal güvenlik sistemi hazine tarafından finanse edilir durumdadır. A tipi fonların toplam değeri 2002 yılı Ocak ayı sonu itibariyle $450 milyon dolar seviyesinde iken, B tipi fonlar ise $3,500 milyarlık büyüklüğe ulaşmışlardır. Bu iki türün toplamı 31 Ocak 2002 itibariyle toplam $3,950 milyar dolarlık bir değeri ifade etmektedir. Fonların toplam büyüklüğü GSYİH'na oranlandığında yaklaşık %2 gibi bir değer çıkarken aslında Türkiye'de kurumsal yatırımcıların büyüklüğü konusunda da fikir vermektedir. Kuruluşlarından bu yana menkul kıymet yatırım fonlarının gelişimi incelendiğinde, portföy yapılarındaki benzerlik ve bu yapı içinde kamu menkul kıymetlerinin ağırlık kazandığı çekmektedir. Fonları kurucularının piyasa paylarına göre incelediğimizde de karşımıza 80 adet kurucu çıkmasına karşın bunların 62 tanesinin piyasadan %1'in altında pay aldığını görmekteyiz. Kamu borçlanma gereksiniminin yüksek olması ve bu olgunun reel faizler üzerindeki baskısı sebebiyle Türkiye'deki sabit getirili ve değişken getirili tüm piyasalar yüksek risk taşımakta ve çok yüksek volatilite içermektedirler. Tüm çalışmalara rağmen halen vadeli işlem ve opsiyon piyasalarının oluşturulmamış olması da yatırımcıların vadeye göre risk ayarlamalarını olanaksız kılmaktadır. sermaye piyasası genelinde ve menkul kıymet piyasası özelinde İMKB likidite ve performans açısından birçok Avrupa ülkesinin ve gelişmekte olan ülkelerin önünde gelmesine ve dış yatırımcılar arasında uzunca süre en cazip piyasalar arasında yer almasına rağmen son yıllarda artan iç borç sorunu ve bu sorunun ekonomik büyüme üzerinde yarattığı olumsuz etkilerin, döviz kuru riskini yönetmenin zorluğu, açığa satışa izin verilmemesi gibi sebeplerle ilginin zayıflamasına ve likiditenin tüm piyasalarda azalması sonucunu doğurmuştur. SONUÇ Sosyal güvenliğin finansmanında uygulanan yöntem, o ülkede genelde uygulanan sosyal güvenlik sistemi ile yakından ilgilidir. Evrensel boyutta kabul görmüş en gelişmiş sistem, 1881 yılında Prusya Şansölyesi Otto Von Bismark tarafından ulusal ölçekte kalibre edilmiş olan 'Sosyal Sigorta Sistemidir. Ortalama yaşam beklentisinin kısa olduğu 19. Yüzyılda, emekli olma yaşını yukarı çekmek suretiyle altı ile yedi sigortalı çalışanın ödediği primle bir emeklinin aylık ve diğer giderlerinin karşılanması esası üzerine dizayn edilmiş sistem olan dağıtım modeli, geçen süre zarfında toplumsal yapıda görülen değişmeler karşısında eskiyerek beklentileri karşılayamama sürecine girmiştir. Bu reform ihtiyacının temel sebepleri de nüfusun yaşlanması, dağıtım esaslı emeklilik sistemlerinde dengenin bozulması, geniş kitlelere nitelikli hizmet sunma gereksinimi, idari ve finansal açıdan kurumların yeniden yapılandırılması olarak sıralanabilir. Türkiye'de sermaye piyasalarının kuruluşundan bu yana katettiği yol oldukça önemli olmakla birlikte ülkede makroekonomik istikrarın da heniz sağlanamamış olması ile beraber halen yaşamakta olduğu birçok sorunlar vardır. Bunların başlıcaları arasında olan ve üzerinde durduğumuz konu ise ülkemizdeki sosyal güvenlik kurumlarının kamuya ait olması ve bunlarının bütçelerinin sürekli açık vermesi olgusudur. Türkiye'de halihazırda uygulanmakta olan yöntemle sosyal güvenlik sistemi bütçe üzerinde büyük yükler oluşturmaktadır. Sosyal güvenlik kuruluşları 1994 yılında bütçeden ayrılan pay $640 milyon ile GSMH'nın %0,64'ü iken bu rakam 2001 yılında $4,2 milyar seviyesine çıkarak GSMH'nın %2,8'sı düzeyine gelmiştir. Bunun nedenleri arasında içinde hükümetlerin SSK'ya politik müdahaleleri, sağlık hizmetlerinden yararlanma şartlarının kolaylaştırılması, erken emeklilik, bozulan aktif-pasif sigortalı oranı, kayıt-dışı sektör olgusu, yüksek prim oranları, modern bir yönetim anlayışının yoksunluğu gibi başlıca koşullar sıralanabilir. Sosyal güvenlik kuruluşların sürekli olarak açık vermesi bir yandan bu kurumların sermaye piyasasına girerek yatırımlara kaynak aktarmalarını engellerken, diğer yandan da kamu bütçe dengesinin devamlı olarak açık vermesi faizler üzerinde yukarı yönlü bir baskı oluşturarak kamu borçlarını arttırmakta ve ekonomik dengelerin bozulmasına sebebiyet vermektedir. Emeklilik sistemi konusunda bu yönde yapılacak bir reform şu andakine benzer bir şekilde iki taraflı ancak iyileşme yönünde ilerleme sağlanmasına imkan sunacaktır. İlki bütçe açıklarını arttırıcı yönde baskının ortadan kalkacak olmasıdır. İkinci yönden fayda ise oluşan emeklilik fonlarının birikecek uzun dönemli fonlardır. Bugün gelinen nokta itibariyle tümüyle aksayan sistemin rehabilite edilmesinden ziyade, dünyadaki trendlerin başlıca demografik olanların baskısıda gözönüne alınarak aynen Şili'de olduğu gibi bunu sistemin tamamen değişimi için bir fırsat olarak görmek çok daha sağlıklı bir yaklaşım olacaktır. Türkiye'nin avantajı olarak ön plana çıkan husus, gelişmiş ve gelişmekte olan ülkelerin birçoğuna göre çok daha genç bir nüfusa sahip olması olarak gözükmektedir. Buradaki önemli nokta genç nüfusa istihdam yaratılmasının gerekliliği olarak ortaya çıkmakta ve böylece ilerideki yıllarda artacak finansman gereksinimine karşılık fon birikimini oluşturulması gerekmektedir. Ancak yine de bu avantaja rağmen sosyal güvenlik sisteminin açık vermesi de bunun aksine ciddi bir dezavantaj olarak süregelmektedir. Burada emeklilik sisteminin reformize edilmesi edilerek bireysel emeklilik sistemine geçilmesi yoluyla sağlanacak katkılar arasında uzun vadeli fon birikimi, vadelerin uzaması, piyasaların derinliğinin artması, özel sektörün borçlanma olanaklarının artması, yatırım için kaynak yaratılması gibi birbirinden önemli birçok fayda gelmektedir. Bu noktada da ileriye yönelik fon birikimini sağlamanın yolu tam fonlu özel emeklilik sistemlerine kademeli geçişi sağlamaktır. Reform için iyi bir temel oluşturmanın önkoşulları içinde öncelikle makroekonomik istikrarın geldiği söylenebilir. Makroekonomik istikrarın içinde düşük enflasyon bir şart olarak gözükmektedir. İkinci bir önkoşul olarak sayılabilecek de kuvvetli bir banakacılık ve sigortacılık sektörünün varlığıdır. Üçünçü ve son önkoşul olarak da etkin bir düzenleyici ve denetleyici mekanizmanın varlığıdır. Özel emeklilik fonlarının hem mali hem de sosyal güvenlik boyutunun olması, sistemin başarılı olması için birçok unsuru etkili kılmaktadır. Bu etkilerin başında belli bir kitle eşiğine ulaşılması gelmektedir. Bunu ölçmek için kullanılan birinci yöntem emeklilik fonlarının GSMH'ya oranıdır. Sistemin başarısını etkileyen diğer bir diğer çok önemli etki de teşvik edici düzenlemelerin varlığıdır. Düzenlemeler içinde çok önemli yer tutan bir diğer husus da emeklilik fonlarının etkilerinin artırılabilmesi için çalışanların tasarruflarını kendilerine çekecek ve tasarruf eğilimini arttıracak vergi düzenlemeleridir. Son olarak reformun etkisinin kendisini rekabet ortamında göstereceğini belirtmek faydalı olacaktır. Bireysel emeklilik sistemi yapısında oluşacak olan emeklilik fonları sosyal güvenlik sisteminin reformu için gerekli olsa da sermaye piyasalarının gelişimi için ne kesin bir çözüm sunmaya ne de tek başına bu işlevi görmek için yeterlidir. Ancak yeni uygulamaya konan bireysel emeklilik yasa tasarısının da uzun dönemli sağlıklı bir yapıya oturtacağı sosyal güvenlik sistemi beraberinde sermaye piyasalarının gelişiminin yolunu da açacaktır. Bu yeni dönemde en kısa zamanda en yüksek faydayı sağlamak için de öncelikle yapılması gereken, bu sisteme geçişi hızlandırmak için özellikle vergi konusunda gerekli olan teşvikleri arttırmak olacaktır.
CONCEPTUAL FRAME Financial freedom can be examined separately as internal and external financial freedom. Internal financial freedom strengthens the connection between inflation and interest rates; on the other hand, external financial freedom weakens the connection between inflation and foreign exchanges and puts the superiority of capital movements instead relative purchasing power of trade and money. The main elements of internal financial freedom are: credit limitations applied to sectors having priority, removing the maximum interest rates; remove the elements avoiding new institutions to enter financial systems; remove the limitations on exchange money payments; opening national financial system to competitive market conditions, etc… With external financial freedom concept; consideration of current assets as foreign exchange by citizens of a country or debt payment in foreign currency and foreigners realizing processes in local financial markets easily can be understood. This definition is also complies with financial opening definition. There are three different process related with external financial freedom. First process type is about the freedom of internal processes. Second process type is a freedom type that allows citizens to make capital transfer to abroad and having financial current assets in foreign countries and foreigners having debts from local markets. Third financial freedom type is related with the freedom of local processes done with foreign currency. Financial deregulation and financial deepen carry a big importance for a country economy to develop. Financial deregulation shortly is the diversification of financial institutions and services. Financial deepen is transferring rate of funds created in finance sector to reel section. THEORETIC APPROACHES McKinnon - Shaw Approach Financial Press Hypothesis that has been developed by Shaw and McKinnon forms the theoretic basement of financial freedom. According to the principle of financial press hypothesis, in financial markets that are kept under pressure in developing countries will contribute economic development as a result of removal of press and financial freedom and they will have a positive role in the effective distribution of sources. This means that, through the increase in the reel interest rates, the saving rates in economy can increase and it has been put forward that development can be supplied by moving sources to productive areas. New Keynesian Approach New Keynesians and New Structuralisms criticize McKinnon - Shaw Hypothesis that is defended by economists, who are based on financial liberation. According to New Keynesian point of view, increase in interest rates does not increase the investments, instead has a dissuasive effect. McKinnon - Shaw' s point of view supporting the cause of financial pressure to ineffective source assignment is not accepted and it is put forward that financial pressure positively affects the source assignment. New Structural Approach According to New Structuralism, increase in interest rates and short term affects of financial freedom cause the formation of especially stagflation environment. LIQUIDITY AND ITS PLACE IN ECONOMY Services supplied by financial system consist of; price information obtaining, risk distribution of saving possessors by taking different assets and exchanging these against money for liquidate supplement. Personal wealth is generally used as the prosperity measurement of individuals. But, the way the wealth is kept also affect the prosperity of the individuals. The assets that are converted to barter tool in a fast and non-costing way, can meet unexpected expenses, and they will be more valuable than the assets in which more time is spent for conversion and also has more cost. Assets that can be converted to money with low costs are called liquid and the assets that do not have these kinds of properties are called non-liquid assets. Liquid assets can be converted to barter tool - money easily and quickly, purchasing or selling process of a liquid assets can be done between parties in a short time and with low cost. Purchase-Selling price internal is one of the most important parts of process cost. Since difference between purchase selling quotations resulted from information differences may increase liquid aimed processes costs, it can encourage the reactions of people realizing these processes in order to decrease the process cost. Individuals having less information require having more liquidate and this forms a chance for financial brokers and markets. Financial progresses for to make people, whom are realizing liquidate aimed processes, satisfied are coming out in the system. INSTITUTIONAL INVESTORS AND SECURITIES MARKETS: INSTITUTIONAL INVESTORS' BENEFITS TO CAPITAL MARKETS The Sequencing Issue Should a country promote the creation of private pension funds, insurance companies and mutual funds in the absence of well developed securities markets? The answer to this question varies for each type of institutional investor. There are, however, three preconditions whose fulfillment would allow even a country lacking all the essential elements of a well developed financial system to consider undertaking systemic pension reform. These include: a strong, long-term and persistent government commitment to implement a successful pension reform; introduction of effective arrangements for the safe custody of pension fund assets and free access to foreign expertise. Dynamic Interaction Institutional investors can act as a countervailing force to the dominant position of commercial banks and thus promote competition and efficiency in the financial system. They can also stimulate financial innovation, modernize capital markets, enhance transparency and information disclosure, and strengthen corporate governance. Countervailing Force One of the main potential benefits of the growth of institutional investors is the intensification of competition. The development of new sources of finance forces dominant commercial banks to become more competitive and to start seeking out their customers rather than waiting for prospective borrowers to visit them. Financial Innovation Institutional investors, and especially pension funds, were major forces stimulating the financial innovation that has taken place over the past forty years. Directly or indirectly, they supported the development of asset-backed securities, the use of structured finance and derivative products, the launching of index-tracking funds, and the offer of synthetic products that protect investors from market declines. Financial innovation stemming from institutional investors is also evident in those developing countries that have implemented systemic pension reform, such as Chile and Argentina. Market Integrity Institutional investors, which are managed by trained professionals, are usually more aware than ordinary investors of the potential conflicts of interest and agency problems facing corporate management. Investor protection rules are generally better developed in countries where large institutional investors hold diversified minority positions in a large number of companies than in countries where institutional investors are either (e.g. South Africa) or tend to hold controlling positions in a small number of companies. At the same time, a stronger legal protection of minority shareholder rights may have contributed to the earlier and on a larger scale diversification into equities of institutional investors in Anglo-American countries compared to continental European countries. Modernization of Market Trading Institutional investors may also exert considerable pressure for modern and efficient trading, clearing and settlement facilities. They have encouraged the use of bloc trading, the abolition of minimum commissions, the restructuring of stock markets and the automation of trading facilities. They have also played an important in promoting more efficient clearing facilities and establishing central depository agencies that facilitate the move to book-entry systems and provide safekeeping services. And they have exerted pressure for modern efficient and reliable back-office operations that have suffered in all countries with emerging securities markets as existing facilities could not cope with fast growing trading volumes. Corporate Governance The role of institutional investors in corporate governance has evolved in line with their growing importance as corporate owners. As long as their equity holdings were small and diversified in a large number of companies and as long as they represented a small fraction of market capitalization, institutional investors adopted a passive approach to corporate governance. They tended to vote with management and if they were unhappy with corporate performance, they could sell without a suffering a big fall in market price. But with continuing growth in their accumulated assets, institutional investors have collectively become dominant shareholders of many nonfinancial corporations. As a result, they can no longer exercise the exit option without disrupting the market and suffering big falls in market prices. They are effectively forced to exercise voice. Institutional investors, mostly through various collective bodies, have been instrumental in emphasizing the importance of strengthening corporate governance structures and especially of increasing the accountability of top managers. Financial Regulation The development of institutional investors requires a robust and effective regulatory and supervisory framework. This takes time to develop and requires a strong and lasting commitment by the authorities. Although stringent regulations may be imposed at first, especially if a compulsory pension and insurance system is created, over time regulations need to be relaxed and to be emphasize transparency and prudence as well as the fiduciary duty of managers toward investors. In developing countries with weak regulatory structures, a long-term benefit of creating private pension funds may well be the establishment of new and robust regulatory agencies that have a strong positive demonstration effect on other segments of the financial system. RETIREMENT FUNDS Retirement fund institutions are defined as the broker institutions accumulating funds, which are collected through contribution shares belonging to active working period of participations, to provide periodic income during the periodic in which they will not work actively. The aim of all retirement funds is same but show difference in two points. The first one is the prevalence of the fund, in other words; the fund term and the obligation of the person participate in the fund in order to have benefit. The second one is, the method of payments. The first one is called determined contribution model. The second one is called determined salary (benefit) model. INSTITUTIONAL INVESTORS AND RETIREMENT FUNDS IN THE WORLD Institutional investors holding a great important place in the development of capital markets and world development, started to improve after Second World War, especially in last 20 years. The total assets of institutional investors increased 3 timed between 1970-1980, and the increase between 1980-1990 was more than 3 times. These assets have been increased approximately 2 times between 1991-1999. In OECD region, the institutional investors approximately 11% increased their assets again in the same period. This increase in their assets occurred as a result of institutional savings and the evaluation of current institutional assets. Insurance companies still form the biggest institutional investor mass with 34% and other investment companies follow them with 29%. It will be necessary to look at the Gross National Revenue to set the macro economic greatness of institutional investments. The height of this rate is an indicator in the capital usage activity. When OECD countries are examined from 1999; England, Holland, U.S.A., Switzerland and Sweden are placed in the first lines with a rate changing between 130-230%. Turkey keeps its last position in the ordering with 3,4%. In the portfolio composition of institutional investors, there is difference between countries and the volume of stocks and bonds with fixed income is more than the volume of share certificates. IMPROVEMENT OF PRIVATE RETIREMENT FUNDS Private retirement funds, which are formed of retirement savings of employees that they have collected during their occupational lives, became one of the most important investment groups in financial markets through collecting savings, which are increasing within the time with the effect of crisis lived because of demographic change of social security system, under its roof. 39% of financial assets in OECD countries belong to insurance companies and 30% belongs to retirement funds. In OECD, the annual average growing speed of private retirement fund assets was around 13% level between 1991-1999. Since they look for long term profit instead of short term profit in their invested assets, the investment of these funds that are called as patient capital focuses on long term high income instead of liquidate. In the investment strategies of retirement funds, parallel to the top position of high income obtaining, it can be seen that the rate of share certificates and bonds in private retirement portfolios are increasing. In the future, asset increase speed in countries like USA, England and Germany in which the retirement funds going maturity stage is expected to slow down, but besides this, it is foreseen that the countries in which the retirement funds are developing will show a greater growing than the average of OECD countries. Especially, the continuance of investment trend in foreign stocks and bonds that will create demand in developing market is expected. All these developments will serve to the increase of width and depth of financial markets. MACROECONOMIC FUNCTIONS OF PRIVATE RETIREMENT FUNDS In the last period, the studies made for to determine the affects of financial development on economic growth, productivity and savings make us think that retirement fund reforms show a positive affect on capital market progresses and a different benefit on prosperity. Basic theoretic support of the existence of positive affect of capital market progress on growing exists in the endogen growing models that causes economic growth by increasing the encouragements on long term investments of liquid and effective share certificate markets. Especially as can be seen in the oldest reform Chili model, retirement fund reform easies the institutional capital accumulation through dynamic legal structure, professionalism increasing in decision making period of investments, more transparency and entirety and also a new company management balance. Increasing the savings Private retirement funds increase the private savings in a country through various ways: a) After the retirement savings start to be collected in individual accounts, the conscious of individuals regarding the necessity of savings in retirement period increases; b) High income of retirement fund assets encourages individuals to make more saving; c) In case if private retirement funds are set as obligatory for all employees, then all the individuals can enter a discipline to start making saving for retirement in the early ages; d) In case if the taxes of pass from distribution system to funding system are increase, the consumption level of individuals decreases; e) Growing sped after reform decreases the obligatory expenses share in income through increasing the income per person and by this way the saving ability of individuals increases. The Development of Financial Markets Continuing and lasting researches show that financial development affects economic growing through many channels. The deepening of economic growing, which affects many areas of life from the development of banking system to increase in credits assigned to private sector, and capital markets is seen as a high correlation between the development of market indexes and capitalization. The activity and deepening of especially share certificates in capital market has a stimulating affect on economic growing by increasing the possibilities in private sector finance, contributing in risk distribution and providing finance to projects bringing high income in long term. Activating the Personalizing Period Private retirement funds have a potential to make a great investment to stocks and bonds exported during the personalizing of public financial institutions. Especially, the capitalization created by these funds in context of transferring public financial institutions to local investors carries a big importance. Reorganization of Workforce Market Private retirement programs contribute in the transferring of capital ownership to employees through the investments done over capital market and spreading over wide public. The most productive sectors of economy determined by the professional fund directors and employees and retired people owing stocks and bonds of the company indirectly get share according to their savings, from investment portfolio that has been varied as they cannot own with their individual accumulations. CHILE RETIREMENT SAVING ACCOUNT SYSTEM In Chili Retirement Saving Account (RSA) System, the element that defines the retirement salary level of the employees is the accumulation that they have done through their working life. The employees choose one of Retirement Fund Management (RFM) companies for operation of RSA. RFMs manage Retirement Funds (RF) investing in share certificates and bonds, which are similar to investment funds. RFM and RF, which they operate, have judicial personalities. Employees can freely transfer their RSA from any RFM to another. Chili RSA system covers both private sector and public sector employees. Generally two options are presented to retired employees. In the first option, retired can purchase a fixed payment schedule from any private life insurance company with the main capital in RSA. In the other option, by leaving RSA funds in the account, retired can receive an amount of money determined by limits that will be determined according to the approximate living period of him and individuals who he/ she has to look after. Opposite to the private social security systems, which is applied by private sector companies, loading an additional cost to people who want to retire before the determined period and sometimes results with the loss of all accumulations and by this way cause the loss of both retirement and employee rights; RSA system runs independently from the employer. RSA system is affective in supporting the flexible workforce market. MACROECONOMIC EFFECTS OF REFORM Effects of Reform to Capital Market Reform in Chili has contributed in capital market of the country by being a direct demand agent and being indirect organizer with the adaptations in substructure, avoiding the power to be used in bad way through insider way in company management system. After the private retirement fund system has been invented in Chili, the capital market has gained a recordable deepness. 1,4 million $ assets in the portfolio of institutional investors in 1980 increased to 37,6 billion $ level in 1995, 25,4 billion $ (68%) of this increase has been collected from Administradora de Fondos de Pensiones (Retirement Fund Administration), shortly AFP. Affects to Stocks and Bonds Market with Fixed Income The interest rate of public stocks and bonds with fixed income, which has been separated by private retirement funds in the beginning period portfolios, started to recess after the first quarter of year 1980 with the affect of success gained in macroeconomic restructuring period. Affects to Share Certificates Market As the investments of AFPs to share certificates increased, trading volume and market value of Santiago Stock Exchange showed a fast development. In that period, the economy was showing a stable growing trend and foreign capital flow to the country increased, because of these the rate of development of Santiago Stock Exchange dependent to private retirement funds has not been fixed. Affects of Private Retirement Funds to Savings Chili retirement reform has created big affects on all the economic operations. One of the most important among them is the increase of a saving rate in a country in 1996 to 29% level from minus 10% in 1986. This affect is mostly supplied from the increase in savings of public sector, and 0.1% saving rate of public sector in 1983 has increased to 5% level in 1993. After 1991, private retirement funds, which are keeping 72% of national savings in hand, became main saving source in the country. INSTITUTIONAL INVESTORS AND TURKEY Since the system used in Turkey for social security is PAYG - previous generation finances the next generation - it is impossible to create a fund in this meaning. Working generation finances retired people with the premiums paid by them. The reason why no funds can be created is because of this feature of the system. Under this structure, it is impossible for social security institutions to have a place in capital markets as institutional investors. When we say institutional investors in capital markets, investment funds (Type A and B) and Stocks and Bonds Investment Partners (SBIP) that carry more importance in Turkey come to our mind. Insurance companies or retirement funds that may come into mind in most of the countries are unfortunately cannot show any existence in this meaning. Opposite to social security institutions offering funds to financial markets in most of developed countries, treasury in Turkey finances the social security system. The total value of Type A funds in 2002 January were 450 million $ and B type funds were 3,500 million $. January 31, 2002 dated total of these two products indicates a value of 3,950 million $. When the total greatness of funds are rated to Gross National Revenue, we get a value of approximately 2%, indeed this value gives an opinion about the greatness of institutional investors in Turkey. When the development of stocks and bonds investment funds are examined starting from their establishment, the similarity in their portfolio and volume of public stocks and bonds in this structure take attention. When we examine funds according to the market shares of their founders, we see that there are 80 founders but 62 of them has share 1% below the market. Since the public loaning requirement is high and this event has a pressure on reel interests, all markets in Turkey with fixed incomes and factor incomes carry a high risk and consist of very high volatility. Although all the studies, still fixed term trading and option markets have not been formed and because of this the investors cannot arrange risks according to the due dates. General in capital market and particular in stock market, although Istanbul Stock Exchange Market was in front of many European country and developing country because of its liquidate and performance and stayed in most attractive markets formed of foreign investors, because of internal debt problem increased in recent years and the affects of this problem on economic growing, difficulty in the management of exchange rate risk, not allowing the sales to opening and similar reasons, it became weaker and caused liquidate to decrease in all markets. CONCLUSION The method applied in finance of social security is in a close relation with the social security system that is applied throughout that country. The most developed system that has a worldwide acceptance is Social Security System, nationally calibrated by Prussia Chancellor Otto Von Bismark in 1881. In the 19th century where the average living time is short, the distribution model, which has been designed as meeting the salary and other expenses of one retired person by the premiums paid by six and seven insured employers through increasing retirement age, started to not to meet the expectations because of getting old against the developments seen in public structure. The main reasons of this reform requirement can be listed as; aging of the population, depravation of balance in distribution based retirement, necessity to give qualified service to wide masses, managerial and financial restructuring of institutions. The way spent from the establishment of capital markets in Turkey to today is really very important, and together with this, macroeconomic stabilization has still not been provided in the country and there are still many problems. The subject that is one of the most important one and which we dwell upon is that public owns the social security institutions and their budgets always give deficit. Through the method applied in Turkey, social security system forms a big load on the budget. The share separated from the budget to social security institutions in 1994 was 640 billion $ and this amount is 0,64% of Gross National revenue. This number has arrived to 4,2 billion $ in 2001 and increased to 2,8% level. We can list the reasons of this as following: political interference of government to Social Security Institution, easing the benefiting conditions from health services, early retirement, depraved asset-liability insured rate, out-of-record sector fact, high premium rates, lack of modern management understanding. Besides Social security institutions have continuous deficits, on the other side these institutions avoid source transfers to investments by entering capital market, and the continuous deficits of public budget balance form an upwards pressure on interests and through this the public debts increase and economic balances become depraved. A reform that will be made about the retirement system will be similar to the current one like double sided, but will give opportunity to provide improvement in recovering. The first one is that the pressure increasing the budget deficits will be removed. The second benefit is that the formed retirement funds will be long-term funds. Until the point arrived today, besides rehabilitating the limping system, it will be a healthier approach to see this as a great opportunity for the change of this system by considering the pressure of most demographic world trends, like in Chili. The factor that comes fore as an advantage of Turkey is seems like having a younger population than many developed and developing countries. The most important point here is the necessity of employing young generation and by this way fund accumulation for the necessity of finance that will increase in the next years will be formed. But, although this advantage, social security system has a deficit and becomes a disadvantage. We can list the advantages here as following; reforming retirement system, passing to individual retirement system, long-term fund accumulation, lengthening the due dates, increase in market deepness, increase of private sector loaning possibilities, creating source for investment, etc… At this point, the way to provide a fund accumulation for future is to supply the graded pass to private retirement system with full fund. Among the preconditions to form a good basement for reform, we can say macroeconomic stabilization comes first. Among macroeconomic stabilization, low inflation is seemed to be a must. Second precondition is the existence of a strong bank and insurance sector. Third and last precondition is the existence of effective organizer and supervisor mechanism. Since private retirement funds have both financial and social security dimension, this makes many elements effective to make the system successful. Reaching to a specific mass threshold comes in the beginning of these affects. The first method to measure this is the rate of retirement funds to Gross National Revenue. Another one of the important factor affecting the system success is the existence of encouraging regulations. Another element among regulations is tax regulations that increase saving slope to increase the affects of retirement funds. Lastly, it will be useful to state that the reform will show itself in competition environment. Retirement funds, which will be formed within individual retirement system structure, are necessary for social security system reform, but it is not enough to present a final solution for capital markets and cannot achieve this alone. But, individual retirement law draft that have been just put into process will open the way of capital market developments together with the social security system that will be settled on a long-term healthy structure. In this new period, in order to provide the maximum benefit in the shortest time and fasten the passing to this system, the first thing that is to be done is to increase the encourage especially necessary for taxes.
CONCEPTUAL FRAME Financial freedom can be examined separately as internal and external financial freedom. Internal financial freedom strengthens the connection between inflation and interest rates; on the other hand, external financial freedom weakens the connection between inflation and foreign exchanges and puts the superiority of capital movements instead relative purchasing power of trade and money. The main elements of internal financial freedom are: credit limitations applied to sectors having priority, removing the maximum interest rates; remove the elements avoiding new institutions to enter financial systems; remove the limitations on exchange money payments; opening national financial system to competitive market conditions, etc… With external financial freedom concept; consideration of current assets as foreign exchange by citizens of a country or debt payment in foreign currency and foreigners realizing processes in local financial markets easily can be understood. This definition is also complies with financial opening definition. There are three different process related with external financial freedom. First process type is about the freedom of internal processes. Second process type is a freedom type that allows citizens to make capital transfer to abroad and having financial current assets in foreign countries and foreigners having debts from local markets. Third financial freedom type is related with the freedom of local processes done with foreign currency. Financial deregulation and financial deepen carry a big importance for a country economy to develop. Financial deregulation shortly is the diversification of financial institutions and services. Financial deepen is transferring rate of funds created in finance sector to reel section. THEORETIC APPROACHES McKinnon - Shaw Approach Financial Press Hypothesis that has been developed by Shaw and McKinnon forms the theoretic basement of financial freedom. According to the principle of financial press hypothesis, in financial markets that are kept under pressure in developing countries will contribute economic development as a result of removal of press and financial freedom and they will have a positive role in the effective distribution of sources. This means that, through the increase in the reel interest rates, the saving rates in economy can increase and it has been put forward that development can be supplied by moving sources to productive areas. New Keynesian Approach New Keynesians and New Structuralisms criticize McKinnon - Shaw Hypothesis that is defended by economists, who are based on financial liberation. According to New Keynesian point of view, increase in interest rates does not increase the investments, instead has a dissuasive effect. McKinnon - Shaw' s point of view supporting the cause of financial pressure to ineffective source assignment is not accepted and it is put forward that financial pressure positively affects the source assignment. New Structural Approach According to New Structuralism, increase in interest rates and short term affects of financial freedom cause the formation of especially stagflation environment. LIQUIDITY AND ITS PLACE IN ECONOMY Services supplied by financial system consist of; price information obtaining, risk distribution of saving possessors by taking different assets and exchanging these against money for liquidate supplement. Personal wealth is generally used as the prosperity measurement of individuals. But, the way the wealth is kept also affect the prosperity of the individuals. The assets that are converted to barter tool in a fast and non-costing way, can meet unexpected expenses, and they will be more valuable than the assets in which more time is spent for conversion and also has more cost. Assets that can be converted to money with low costs are called liquid and the assets that do not have these kinds of properties are called non-liquid assets. Liquid assets can be converted to barter tool - money easily and quickly, purchasing or selling process of a liquid assets can be done between parties in a short time and with low cost. Purchase-Selling price internal is one of the most important parts of process cost. Since difference between purchase selling quotations resulted from information differences may increase liquid aimed processes costs, it can encourage the reactions of people realizing these processes in order to decrease the process cost. Individuals having less information require having more liquidate and this forms a chance for financial brokers and markets. Financial progresses for to make people, whom are realizing liquidate aimed processes, satisfied are coming out in the system. INSTITUTIONAL INVESTORS AND SECURITIES MARKETS: INSTITUTIONAL INVESTORS' BENEFITS TO CAPITAL MARKETS The Sequencing Issue Should a country promote the creation of private pension funds, insurance companies and mutual funds in the absence of well developed securities markets? The answer to this question varies for each type of institutional investor. There are, however, three preconditions whose fulfillment would allow even a country lacking all the essential elements of a well developed financial system to consider undertaking systemic pension reform. These include: a strong, long-term and persistent government commitment to implement a successful pension reform; introduction of effective arrangements for the safe custody of pension fund assets and free access to foreign expertise. Dynamic Interaction Institutional investors can act as a countervailing force to the dominant position of commercial banks and thus promote competition and efficiency in the financial system. They can also stimulate financial innovation, modernize capital markets, enhance transparency and information disclosure, and strengthen corporate governance. Countervailing Force One of the main potential benefits of the growth of institutional investors is the intensification of competition. The development of new sources of finance forces dominant commercial banks to become more competitive and to start seeking out their customers rather than waiting for prospective borrowers to visit them. Financial Innovation Institutional investors, and especially pension funds, were major forces stimulating the financial innovation that has taken place over the past forty years. Directly or indirectly, they supported the development of asset-backed securities, the use of structured finance and derivative products, the launching of index-tracking funds, and the offer of synthetic products that protect investors from market declines. Financial innovation stemming from institutional investors is also evident in those developing countries that have implemented systemic pension reform, such as Chile and Argentina. Market Integrity Institutional investors, which are managed by trained professionals, are usually more aware than ordinary investors of the potential conflicts of interest and agency problems facing corporate management. Investor protection rules are generally better developed in countries where large institutional investors hold diversified minority positions in a large number of companies than in countries where institutional investors are either (e.g. South Africa) or tend to hold controlling positions in a small number of companies. At the same time, a stronger legal protection of minority shareholder rights may have contributed to the earlier and on a larger scale diversification into equities of institutional investors in Anglo-American countries compared to continental European countries. Modernization of Market Trading Institutional investors may also exert considerable pressure for modern and efficient trading, clearing and settlement facilities. They have encouraged the use of bloc trading, the abolition of minimum commissions, the restructuring of stock markets and the automation of trading facilities. They have also played an important in promoting more efficient clearing facilities and establishing central depository agencies that facilitate the move to book-entry systems and provide safekeeping services. And they have exerted pressure for modern efficient and reliable back-office operations that have suffered in all countries with emerging securities markets as existing facilities could not cope with fast growing trading volumes. Corporate Governance The role of institutional investors in corporate governance has evolved in line with their growing importance as corporate owners. As long as their equity holdings were small and diversified in a large number of companies and as long as they represented a small fraction of market capitalization, institutional investors adopted a passive approach to corporate governance. They tended to vote with management and if they were unhappy with corporate performance, they could sell without a suffering a big fall in market price. But with continuing growth in their accumulated assets, institutional investors have collectively become dominant shareholders of many nonfinancial corporations. As a result, they can no longer exercise the exit option without disrupting the market and suffering big falls in market prices. They are effectively forced to exercise voice. Institutional investors, mostly through various collective bodies, have been instrumental in emphasizing the importance of strengthening corporate governance structures and especially of increasing the accountability of top managers. Financial Regulation The development of institutional investors requires a robust and effective regulatory and supervisory framework. This takes time to develop and requires a strong and lasting commitment by the authorities. Although stringent regulations may be imposed at first, especially if a compulsory pension and insurance system is created, over time regulations need to be relaxed and to be emphasize transparency and prudence as well as the fiduciary duty of managers toward investors. In developing countries with weak regulatory structures, a long-term benefit of creating private pension funds may well be the establishment of new and robust regulatory agencies that have a strong positive demonstration effect on other segments of the financial system. RETIREMENT FUNDS Retirement fund institutions are defined as the broker institutions accumulating funds, which are collected through contribution shares belonging to active working period of participations, to provide periodic income during the periodic in which they will not work actively. The aim of all retirement funds is same but show difference in two points. The first one is the prevalence of the fund, in other words; the fund term and the obligation of the person participate in the fund in order to have benefit. The second one is, the method of payments. The first one is called determined contribution model. The second one is called determined salary (benefit) model. INSTITUTIONAL INVESTORS AND RETIREMENT FUNDS IN THE WORLD Institutional investors holding a great important place in the development of capital markets and world development, started to improve after Second World War, especially in last 20 years. The total assets of institutional investors increased 3 timed between 1970-1980, and the increase between 1980-1990 was more than 3 times. These assets have been increased approximately 2 times between 1991-1999. In OECD region, the institutional investors approximately 11% increased their assets again in the same period. This increase in their assets occurred as a result of institutional savings and the evaluation of current institutional assets. Insurance companies still form the biggest institutional investor mass with 34% and other investment companies follow them with 29%. It will be necessary to look at the Gross National Revenue to set the macro economic greatness of institutional investments. The height of this rate is an indicator in the capital usage activity. When OECD countries are examined from 1999; England, Holland, U.S.A., Switzerland and Sweden are placed in the first lines with a rate changing between 130-230%. Turkey keeps its last position in the ordering with 3,4%. In the portfolio composition of institutional investors, there is difference between countries and the volume of stocks and bonds with fixed income is more than the volume of share certificates. IMPROVEMENT OF PRIVATE RETIREMENT FUNDS Private retirement funds, which are formed of retirement savings of employees that they have collected during their occupational lives, became one of the most important investment groups in financial markets through collecting savings, which are increasing within the time with the effect of crisis lived because of demographic change of social security system, under its roof. 39% of financial assets in OECD countries belong to insurance companies and 30% belongs to retirement funds. In OECD, the annual average growing speed of private retirement fund assets was around 13% level between 1991-1999. Since they look for long term profit instead of short term profit in their invested assets, the investment of these funds that are called as patient capital focuses on long term high income instead of liquidate. In the investment strategies of retirement funds, parallel to the top position of high income obtaining, it can be seen that the rate of share certificates and bonds in private retirement portfolios are increasing. In the future, asset increase speed in countries like USA, England and Germany in which the retirement funds going maturity stage is expected to slow down, but besides this, it is foreseen that the countries in which the retirement funds are developing will show a greater growing than the average of OECD countries. Especially, the continuance of investment trend in foreign stocks and bonds that will create demand in developing market is expected. All these developments will serve to the increase of width and depth of financial markets. MACROECONOMIC FUNCTIONS OF PRIVATE RETIREMENT FUNDS In the last period, the studies made for to determine the affects of financial development on economic growth, productivity and savings make us think that retirement fund reforms show a positive affect on capital market progresses and a different benefit on prosperity. Basic theoretic support of the existence of positive affect of capital market progress on growing exists in the endogen growing models that causes economic growth by increasing the encouragements on long term investments of liquid and effective share certificate markets. Especially as can be seen in the oldest reform Chili model, retirement fund reform easies the institutional capital accumulation through dynamic legal structure, professionalism increasing in decision making period of investments, more transparency and entirety and also a new company management balance. Increasing the savings Private retirement funds increase the private savings in a country through various ways: a) After the retirement savings start to be collected in individual accounts, the conscious of individuals regarding the necessity of savings in retirement period increases; b) High income of retirement fund assets encourages individuals to make more saving; c) In case if private retirement funds are set as obligatory for all employees, then all the individuals can enter a discipline to start making saving for retirement in the early ages; d) In case if the taxes of pass from distribution system to funding system are increase, the consumption level of individuals decreases; e) Growing sped after reform decreases the obligatory expenses share in income through increasing the income per person and by this way the saving ability of individuals increases. The Development of Financial Markets Continuing and lasting researches show that financial development affects economic growing through many channels. The deepening of economic growing, which affects many areas of life from the development of banking system to increase in credits assigned to private sector, and capital markets is seen as a high correlation between the development of market indexes and capitalization. The activity and deepening of especially share certificates in capital market has a stimulating affect on economic growing by increasing the possibilities in private sector finance, contributing in risk distribution and providing finance to projects bringing high income in long term. Activating the Personalizing Period Private retirement funds have a potential to make a great investment to stocks and bonds exported during the personalizing of public financial institutions. Especially, the capitalization created by these funds in context of transferring public financial institutions to local investors carries a big importance. Reorganization of Workforce Market Private retirement programs contribute in the transferring of capital ownership to employees through the investments done over capital market and spreading over wide public. The most productive sectors of economy determined by the professional fund directors and employees and retired people owing stocks and bonds of the company indirectly get share according to their savings, from investment portfolio that has been varied as they cannot own with their individual accumulations. CHILE RETIREMENT SAVING ACCOUNT SYSTEM In Chili Retirement Saving Account (RSA) System, the element that defines the retirement salary level of the employees is the accumulation that they have done through their working life. The employees choose one of Retirement Fund Management (RFM) companies for operation of RSA. RFMs manage Retirement Funds (RF) investing in share certificates and bonds, which are similar to investment funds. RFM and RF, which they operate, have judicial personalities. Employees can freely transfer their RSA from any RFM to another. Chili RSA system covers both private sector and public sector employees. Generally two options are presented to retired employees. In the first option, retired can purchase a fixed payment schedule from any private life insurance company with the main capital in RSA. In the other option, by leaving RSA funds in the account, retired can receive an amount of money determined by limits that will be determined according to the approximate living period of him and individuals who he/ she has to look after. Opposite to the private social security systems, which is applied by private sector companies, loading an additional cost to people who want to retire before the determined period and sometimes results with the loss of all accumulations and by this way cause the loss of both retirement and employee rights; RSA system runs independently from the employer. RSA system is affective in supporting the flexible workforce market. MACROECONOMIC EFFECTS OF REFORM Effects of Reform to Capital Market Reform in Chili has contributed in capital market of the country by being a direct demand agent and being indirect organizer with the adaptations in substructure, avoiding the power to be used in bad way through insider way in company management system. After the private retirement fund system has been invented in Chili, the capital market has gained a recordable deepness. 1,4 million $ assets in the portfolio of institutional investors in 1980 increased to 37,6 billion $ level in 1995, 25,4 billion $ (68%) of this increase has been collected from Administradora de Fondos de Pensiones (Retirement Fund Administration), shortly AFP. Affects to Stocks and Bonds Market with Fixed Income The interest rate of public stocks and bonds with fixed income, which has been separated by private retirement funds in the beginning period portfolios, started to recess after the first quarter of year 1980 with the affect of success gained in macroeconomic restructuring period. Affects to Share Certificates Market As the investments of AFPs to share certificates increased, trading volume and market value of Santiago Stock Exchange showed a fast development. In that period, the economy was showing a stable growing trend and foreign capital flow to the country increased, because of these the rate of development of Santiago Stock Exchange dependent to private retirement funds has not been fixed. Affects of Private Retirement Funds to Savings Chili retirement reform has created big affects on all the economic operations. One of the most important among them is the increase of a saving rate in a country in 1996 to 29% level from minus 10% in 1986. This affect is mostly supplied from the increase in savings of public sector, and 0.1% saving rate of public sector in 1983 has increased to 5% level in 1993. After 1991, private retirement funds, which are keeping 72% of national savings in hand, became main saving source in the country. INSTITUTIONAL INVESTORS AND TURKEY Since the system used in Turkey for social security is PAYG - previous generation finances the next generation - it is impossible to create a fund in this meaning. Working generation finances retired people with the premiums paid by them. The reason why no funds can be created is because of this feature of the system. Under this structure, it is impossible for social security institutions to have a place in capital markets as institutional investors. When we say institutional investors in capital markets, investment funds (Type A and B) and Stocks and Bonds Investment Partners (SBIP) that carry more importance in Turkey come to our mind. Insurance companies or retirement funds that may come into mind in most of the countries are unfortunately cannot show any existence in this meaning. Opposite to social security institutions offering funds to financial markets in most of developed countries, treasury in Turkey finances the social security system. The total value of Type A funds in 2002 January were 450 million $ and B type funds were 3,500 million $. January 31, 2002 dated total of these two products indicates a value of 3,950 million $. When the total greatness of funds are rated to Gross National Revenue, we get a value of approximately 2%, indeed this value gives an opinion about the greatness of institutional investors in Turkey. When the development of stocks and bonds investment funds are examined starting from their establishment, the similarity in their portfolio and volume of public stocks and bonds in this structure take attention. When we examine funds according to the market shares of their founders, we see that there are 80 founders but 62 of them has share 1% below the market. Since the public loaning requirement is high and this event has a pressure on reel interests, all markets in Turkey with fixed incomes and factor incomes carry a high risk and consist of very high volatility. Although all the studies, still fixed term trading and option markets have not been formed and because of this the investors cannot arrange risks according to the due dates. General in capital market and particular in stock market, although Istanbul Stock Exchange Market was in front of many European country and developing country because of its liquidate and performance and stayed in most attractive markets formed of foreign investors, because of internal debt problem increased in recent years and the affects of this problem on economic growing, difficulty in the management of exchange rate risk, not allowing the sales to opening and similar reasons, it became weaker and caused liquidate to decrease in all markets. CONCLUSION The method applied in finance of social security is in a close relation with the social security system that is applied throughout that country. The most developed system that has a worldwide acceptance is Social Security System, nationally calibrated by Prussia Chancellor Otto Von Bismark in 1881. In the 19th century where the average living time is short, the distribution model, which has been designed as meeting the salary and other expenses of one retired person by the premiums paid by six and seven insured employers through increasing retirement age, started to not to meet the expectations because of getting old against the developments seen in public structure. The main reasons of this reform requirement can be listed as; aging of the population, depravation of balance in distribution based retirement, necessity to give qualified service to wide masses, managerial and financial restructuring of institutions. The way spent from the establishment of capital markets in Turkey to today is really very important, and together with this, macroeconomic stabilization has still not been provided in the country and there are still many problems. The subject that is one of the most important one and which we dwell upon is that public owns the social security institutions and their budgets always give deficit. Through the method applied in Turkey, social security system forms a big load on the budget. The share separated from the budget to social security institutions in 1994 was 640 billion $ and this amount is 0,64% of Gross National revenue. This number has arrived to 4,2 billion $ in 2001 and increased to 2,8% level. We can list the reasons of this as following: political interference of government to Social Security Institution, easing the benefiting conditions from health services, early retirement, depraved asset-liability insured rate, out-of-record sector fact, high premium rates, lack of modern management understanding. Besides Social security institutions have continuous deficits, on the other side these institutions avoid source transfers to investments by entering capital market, and the continuous deficits of public budget balance form an upwards pressure on interests and through this the public debts increase and economic balances become depraved. A reform that will be made about the retirement system will be similar to the current one like double sided, but will give opportunity to provide improvement in recovering. The first one is that the pressure increasing the budget deficits will be removed. The second benefit is that the formed retirement funds will be long-term funds. Until the point arrived today, besides rehabilitating the limping system, it will be a healthier approach to see this as a great opportunity for the change of this system by considering the pressure of most demographic world trends, like in Chili. The factor that comes fore as an advantage of Turkey is seems like having a younger population than many developed and developing countries. The most important point here is the necessity of employing young generation and by this way fund accumulation for the necessity of finance that will increase in the next years will be formed. But, although this advantage, social security system has a deficit and becomes a disadvantage. We can list the advantages here as following; reforming retirement system, passing to individual retirement system, long-term fund accumulation, lengthening the due dates, increase in market deepness, increase of private sector loaning possibilities, creating source for investment, etc… At this point, the way to provide a fund accumulation for future is to supply the graded pass to private retirement system with full fund. Among the preconditions to form a good basement for reform, we can say macroeconomic stabilization comes first. Among macroeconomic stabilization, low inflation is seemed to be a must. Second precondition is the existence of a strong bank and insurance sector. Third and last precondition is the existence of effective organizer and supervisor mechanism. Since private retirement funds have both financial and social security dimension, this makes many elements effective to make the system successful. Reaching to a specific mass threshold comes in the beginning of these affects. The first method to measure this is the rate of retirement funds to Gross National Revenue. Another one of the important factor affecting the system success is the existence of encouraging regulations. Another element among regulations is tax regulations that increase saving slope to increase the affects of retirement funds. Lastly, it will be useful to state that the reform will show itself in competition environment. Retirement funds, which will be formed within individual retirement system structure, are necessary for social security system reform, but it is not enough to present a final solution for capital markets and cannot achieve this alone. But, individual retirement law draft that have been just put into process will open the way of capital market developments together with the social security system that will be settled on a long-term healthy structure. In this new period, in order to provide the maximum benefit in the shortest time and fasten the passing to this system, the first thing that is to be done is to increase the encourage especially necessary for taxes.
